Índice de privación en España por sección censal en 2011 / Deprivation index by enumeration district in Spain, 2011

Objetivo: Presentar la metodología seguida en el diseño y la implementación de un índice de privación por sección censal, y describir la situación socioeconómica en España en 2011. Método: La unidad de análisis fue la sección censal (N=35.960). Los datos proceden del Censo de Población y Viviendas de 2011. Teniendo en cuenta el carácter muestral del censo y las limitaciones normativas de confidencialidad de datos, las variables se calcularon indirectamente usando los complementarios de las variables disponibles. Se efectuaron comprobaciones para asegurar su fiabilidad. En la selección de indicadores se consideró la comparabilidad con el índice MEDEA y se exploró la incorporación de nueva información. Se elaboró un índice de privación mediante análisis de componentes principales. Se realizó un análisis de sensibilidad del índice en ámbitos urbanos y en el resto de los territorios. Resultados: Con la información censal se elaboraron 22 indicadores para 35.917 secciones censales. El índice de privación se basó en seis indicadores: población trabajadora manual, población asalariada eventual, desempleo, personas de 16 y más años y de 16 a 29 años con instrucción insuficiente, y viviendas principales sin acceso a Internet. El mapa de España muestra un eje decreciente de privación de suroeste a nordeste. Conclusiones: Se ha aprovechado sistemáticamente la información socioeconómica del censo de 2011 por sección censal. El índice elaborado, similar al MEDEA, facilitará el estudio actualizado de las desigualdades en salud para toda España después de la crisis económica iniciada en 2008. (AU)

Objective: To present the methodology used in the design and implementation of a deprivation index by enumeration district, and to describe the socioeconomic situation of Spain in 2011.Method: The unit of analysis was the enumeration district (N=35,960). Data came from the 2011 Population and Housing Census of Spain. Given both the sampling nature of the Census and the regulatory limitations of data confidentiality, variables were calculated indirectly by using the complement of the available variables. Checks were made to ensure reliability. The selection of the indicators took into account comparability with the MEDEA index. The inclusion of additional information was explored. A deprivation index was built using Principal Component Analysis. Sensitivity analysis of the index was performed for urban areas and the rest of the regions. Results: Using the census information, 22 indicators were calculated for 35,917 enumeration districts. The deprivation index was based on six indicators: manual and temporary workers, unemployment, insufficient education overall and in young people (aged 16 to 29 years), and dwellings without access to the internet. The map of Spain shows a gradient of decreasing deprivation from south-west to north-east. Conclusions: The socioeconomic information of the 2011 census by enumeration district was used systematically. The drafted index, similar to the MEDEA, will facilitate the updated study of health inequalities for Spain overall following the economic recession that began in 2008. (AU)

[Deprivation index by enumeration district in Spain, 2011]. / Índice de privación en España por sección censal en 2011.

OBJECTIVE: To present the methodology used in the design and implementation of a deprivation index by enumeration district, and to describe the socioeconomic situation of Spain in 2011. METHOD: The unit of analysis was the enumeration district (N=35,960). Data came from the 2011 Population and Housing Census of Spain. Given both the sampling nature of the Census and the regulatory limitations of data confidentiality, variables were calculated indirectly by using the complement of the available variables. Checks were made to ensure reliability. The selection of the indicators took into account comparability with the MEDEA index. The inclusion of additional information was explored. A deprivation index was built using Principal Component Analysis. Sensitivity analysis of the index was performed for urban areas and the rest of the regions. RESULTS: Using the census information, 22 indicators were calculated for 35,917 enumeration districts. The deprivation index was based on six indicators: manual and temporary workers, unemployment, insufficient education overall and in young people (aged 16 to 29 years), and dwellings without access to the internet. The map of Spain shows a gradient of decreasing deprivation from south-west to north-east. CONCLUSIONS: The socioeconomic information of the 2011 census by enumeration district was used systematically. The drafted index, similar to the MEDEA, will facilitate the updated study of health inequalities for Spain overall following the economic recession that began in 2008.

Efecto producido por la población institucionalizada en la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad en áreas pequeñas de Euskadi (España) / Effect of the population in collective dwellings on small-area mortality risk estimation in the Basque Country region (Spain)

OBJETIVO: Cuantificar el efecto que tiene la inclusión de la población institucionalizada en la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad en las secciones censales de Euskadi (España) para las principales causas de mortalidad en el periodo 1996-2003. MÉTODO: Estudio ecológico transversal por áreas pequeñas. Se analizaron las principales causas de mortalidad y por sexo. RESULTADOS: Al analizar el efecto general que tiene en todas las secciones con población institucionalizada se ha visto que no hay apenas ningún efecto reseñable en hombres ni en mujeres. En cambio, cuando se han seleccionado las áreas geográficas donde la población institucionalizada supone un porcentaje importante, más del 10% de la población de esa área, sí se ha observado un efecto incrementando la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad. CONCLUSIONES: El efecto que tiene la inclusión de la población institucionalizada se ve claramente en aquellas causas de mortalidad relacionadas con una mayor dependencia o fragilidad, y por lo tanto con estar en una residencia de personas mayores, como son las demencias y la enfermedad de Alzheimer, y la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica, sobrestimando el riesgo de mortalidad en torno a un 8% y un 4%, respectivamente, en esas áreas

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings on the estimation of mortality risk in the census areas of the Basque Country (Spain) for the main causes of mortality in the period 1996-2003. METHOD: Small-area ecological cross-sectional study. The main causes of mortality by sex were analyzed. RESULTS: When the general effect on all areas with a a population in collective dwellings was analyzed, hardly any noticeable effect was seen on either men or women. On the other hand, an effect was found when selecting the areas where the population in collective dwellings is more than 10% of the area's population. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings clearly seen in causes of mortality, such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease, and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, related to greater dependence or frailty, and therefore related to being in a nursing or elderly persons' home, over-estimating the risk of mortality by approximately 8% and 4%, respectively, in these geographical areas

[Effect of the population in collective dwellings on small-area mortality risk estimation in the Basque Country region (Spain)]. / Efecto producido por la población institucionalizada en la estimación del riesgo de mortalidad en áreas pequeñas de Euskadi (España).

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings on the estimation of mortality risk in the census areas of the Basque Country (Spain) for the main causes of mortality in the period 1996-2003. METHOD: Small-area ecological cross-sectional study. The main causes of mortality by sex were analyzed. RESULTS: When the general effect on all areas with a a population in collective dwellings was analyzed, hardly any noticeable effect was seen on either men or women. On the other hand, an effect was found when selecting the areas where the population in collective dwellings is more than 10% of the area's population. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of the inclusion of the population in collective dwellings clearly seen in causes of mortality, such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease, and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, related to greater dependence or frailty, and therefore related to being in a nursing or elderly persons' home, over-estimating the risk of mortality by approximately 8% and 4%, respectively, in these geographical areas.

Estimación de indicadores de salud en áreas pequeñas a partir de datos de la Encuesta de Salud de Euskadi / Small area estimation of health indicators based on data from the Basque Country Health Survey

Las encuestas de salud son una herramienta clave para la toma de decisiones en políticas de salud y para la planificación de los servicios de salud. El uso de métodos estadísticos para áreas pequeñas que utilizan información de diferentes ámbitos geográficos puede resultar útil para estimar indicadores de salud a una escala geográfica menor que la originalmente considerada en el diseño de una encuesta

Health surveys are a key tool for decision-making in health policies and health services planning. The use of small-area statistical methods that use information at different geographic levels may be useful for estimating health indicators at a lower geographical level than originally considered in the survey design

Gender and socioeconomic inequalities in the implementation of the Basque programme for multimorbid patients.

BACKGROUND: The aim of our study was to increase awareness of the relevance of the implemented programmes to inequity of access and inequality of health by analyzing the impact of a patient-centred strategy for multimorbid patients. METHODS: This retrospective study compared the 2014 multimorbid patient group (intervention group) with its 2012 analogue (control group), before the Department of Health of the Basque Country launched the strategy for managing disease chronicity. Inequalities in healthcare access were represented by differences in the inclusion of patients in the programme and in contacts with primary care (PC) services by gender and socioeconomic status (measured by deprivation index by census track). Likewise, differences in hospital care represented inequalities in health outcomes. Generalized linear models were used to analyze relationships among variables. A propensity score by a genetic matching approach was used to minimize possible selection bias. RESULTS: At baseline, women had less probability of being eligible for the programme. No clear patterns were seen in resource consumption in PC. The probability of hospitalization was higher for men and increased according to socioeconomic status. The implementation of the programme yielded more contacts with PC services in all groups and a reduction in hospitalizations, especially among men and the most socioeconomically deprived patients. CONCLUSION: The patient-centred, integrated-care intervention launched by the Department of Health of the Basque Country might have reduced some gender and socioeconomic inequalities in health outcomes, as it avoided more hospitalizations in subgroups that presented with more episodes of decompensation in the reference year.

Correction to: Socioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality before and after the economic recession in Spain.

It has been highlighted that the original article.

Stable socioeconomic inequalities in ischaemic heart disease mortality during the economic crisis: a time trend analysis in 2 Spanish settings.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have identified a decrease in ischaemic heart disease mortality during the recent economic recession. The Spanish population was severely affected by the Great Recession, however, there is little evidence on its effects on socioeconomic inequalities in ischaemic heart disease mortality. This study examines trends in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality due to ischaemic heart disease (IHD). METHODS: We used linked census records with mortality registers available from the Basque Country and Barcelona city for population above 25 years, between 2001 and 04, the accelerated economic growth period of 2005-08, and 2009-12, with the last period coinciding with the Great Recession. Applying Poisson models, we calculated relative and absolute indexes of inequalities by education level for each period, age group, gender, and site. RESULTS: We found moderate age-adjusted inequalities in IHD with a gradient of increasing rates through less educational level, but no significant evidence of increasing trends in socioeconomic inequalities in IHD mortality, rather an inverted U-shape time trend in some groups below 75 years in relative inequalities. Absolute inequalities decrease in the last period except for women from 50 to 64 years. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that the economic crisis has not increased socioeconomic inequalities in IHD mortality in two geographical settings in Spain.

[Small area estimation of health indicators based on data from the Basque Country Health Survey]. / Estimación de indicadores de salud en áreas pequeñas a partir de datos de la Encuesta de Salud de Euskadi.

Health surveys are a key tool for decision-making in health policies and health services planning. The use of small-area statistical methods that use information at different geographic levels may be useful for estimating health indicators at a lower geographical level than originally considered in the survey design.

Socioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality before and after the economic recession in Spain.

BACKGROUND: An increase in suicide mortality is often observed in economic recessions. The objective of this study was to analyse trends in socioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality before and during the economic recession in two geographical settings in Spain. METHODS: This study analyses inequalities in mortality according to educational level during 3 different time periods based on individual data from the Basque Country and Barcelona city. We analysed suicide mortality data for all residents over 25 years of age from 2001 to 2012. Two periods before the crisis (2001-2004 and 2005-2008) and another during the crisis (2009-2012) were studied. We performed independent analyses for sex, age group, and for the two geographical settings. We fit Poisson regression models to study the relationship between educational level and mortality, and calculated the relative index of inequality (RII) and the slope index of inequality (SII) as comparative measures. RESULTS: For men in the Basque Country, all RII values for the three time periods were similar and almost all were greater than 2; in Barcelona the RII values were generally lower. The SII values for Barcelona tended to decrease over time, whereas in the Basque Country they showed a U-shaped pattern. Among women aged 25-44 years we found an association between educational level and suicide mortality during the first time period; however, we found no clear association for other age groups or time periods. CONCLUSION: This study within two geographical settings in Spain shows that trends in inequalities in suicide mortality according to educational level remained stable among men before and during the economic recession.

Protocolo del estudio sobre el efecto de la crisis económica en la mortalidad, la salud reproductiva y las desigualdades en salud en España / Study protocol on the effect of the economic crisis on mortality and reproductive health and health inequalities in Spain

Se presenta el protocolo de los dos subestudios sobre el efecto de la crisis económica en la mortalidad, la salud reproductiva y las desigualdades en salud en España. Subestudio 1: describir la evolución de la mortalidad y la salud reproductiva entre 1990 y 2013 mediante un estudio longitudinal ecológico en las comunidades autónomas. Se analizarán los cambios producidos por la crisis económica en la tendencia de los indicadores de mortalidad y salud reproductiva utilizando datos panel (17 comunidades autónomas por años de estudio) y ajustando modelos de Poisson de efectos aleatorios. Subestudio 2: analizar las desigualdades según la privación socioeconómica en la mortalidad y en la salud reproductiva en varias zonas de España. Se realizará un estudio ecológico de tendencias en el cual se analizará la precrisis (1999-2003 y 2004-2008) y la crisis (2009-2013). Se ajustarán modelos de efectos aleatorios según Besag York y Mollié para estimar los indicadores de mortalidad y de salud reproductiva suavizados en secciones censales (AU)

The aim is to present the protocol of the two sub-studies on the effect of the economic crisis on mortality and reproductive health and health inequalities in Spain. Substudy 1: describe the evolution of mortality and reproductive health between 1990 and 2013 through a longitudinal ecological study in the Autonomous Communities. This study will identify changes caused by the economic crisis in trends or reproductive health and mortality indicators using panel data (17 Autonomous Communities per study year) and adjusting Poisson models with random effects variance. Substudy 2: analyse inequalities by socioeconomic deprivation in mortality and reproductive health in several areas of Spain. An ecological study analysing trends in the pre-crisis (1999-2003 and 2004-2008) and crisis (2009-2013) periods will be performed. Random effects models Besag York and Mollié will be adjusted to estimate mortality indicators softened in reproductive health and census tracts (AU)

[Study protocol on the effect of the economic crisis on mortality and reproductive health and health inequalities in Spain]. / Protocolo del estudio sobre el efecto de la crisis económica en la mortalidad, la salud reproductiva y las desigualdades en salud en España.

The aim is to present the protocol of the two sub-studies on the effect of the economic crisis on mortality and reproductive health and health inequalities in Spain. Substudy 1: describe the evolution of mortality and reproductive health between 1990 and 2013 through a longitudinal ecological study in the Autonomous Communities. This study will identify changes caused by the economic crisis in trends or reproductive health and mortality indicators using panel data (17 Autonomous Communities per study year) and adjusting Poisson models with random effects variance. Substudy 2: analyse inequalities by socioeconomic deprivation in mortality and reproductive health in several areas of Spain. An ecological study analysing trends in the pre-crisis (1999-2003 and 2004-2008) and crisis (2009-2013) periods will be performed. Random effects models Besag York and Mollié will be adjusted to estimate mortality indicators softened in reproductive health and census tracts.

The impact of the Great Recession on mental health and its inequalities: the case of a Southern European region, 1997-2013.

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have shown that macroeconomic changes have a great influence on health, prompting different concerns in recent literature about the effects of the current recession. The objective of the study was to assess the changes in the mental health of the working-age population in the Basque Country (Spain) and its social inequalities following the onset of the 2008 recession, with special focus on the role of unemployment. METHODS: Repeated cross-sectional study on the population aged 16-64, using four Basque Health Surveys (1997-2013). Age-adjusted prevalences of poor mental health and incremental prevalence ratios (working status and social class adjusted) between years were calculated. Absolute/relative measures of social inequalities were also calculated. RESULTS: From 2008, there was a clear deterioration in the mental health, especially among men. Neither changes in employment status nor social class accounted for these changes. In men, the deterioration affected all working status categories, except the retired but significant changes occurred only among the employed. In women, poor mental health significantly increased among the unemployed. Students were also especially affected. Relative inequalities increased only in men. CONCLUSIONS: The Great Recession is being accompanied by adverse effects on mental health, which cannot be fully explained by the increase of unemployment. Public health professionals should closely monitor the medium and long-term effects of the crisis as these may emerge only many years after the onset of recessions.

Marital status, labour force activity and mortality: a study in the USA and six European countries.

AIMS: Labour force activity and marriage share some pathways through which they potentially influence health. In this paper, we examine whether marriage and labour force participation interact in the way they influence mortality in the USA and six European countries. METHODS: We used data from the US National Health Interview Survey linked to the National Death Index, and national mortality registry data for Austria, England/Wales, Finland, Hungary, Norway and Spain (specifically, the Basque country) during 1999-2007, for men and women aged 30-59 years at baseline. We used Poisson regression to estimate both the additive (relative excess risk due to interaction) and multiplicative interactions between marriage and labour force activity on mortality. RESULTS: Labour force inactivity was associated with higher mortality, but this association was stronger for unmarried, rather than married, individuals. Likewise, being unmarried was associated with higher mortality, but this association was stronger for inactive than for active individuals. To illustrate, among US women out of the labour force, being unmarried was associated with a 3.98 times (95%CI 3.28-4.82) higher risk of dying than being married; whereas the relative risk (RR) was 2.49 (95%CI 2.10-2.94), for women who were active in the labour market. Although this interaction between marriage and labour force activity was only significant for women on a multiplicative scale, there was a significant additive interaction for both men and women. The pattern was similar across all countries. CONCLUSIONS: Marriage attenuated the increased mortality risk associated with labour force inactivity; while labour force activity attenuated the mortality risk associated with being unmarried. Our study emphasizes the importance of public health and social policies that improve the health and well-being of unmarried and inactive men and women.

Trends in inequalities in premature mortality: a study of 3.2 million deaths in 13 European countries.

BACKGROUND: Over the last decades of the 20th century, a widening of the gap in death rates between upper and lower socioeconomic groups has been reported for many European countries. For most countries, it is unknown whether this widening has continued into the first decade of the 21st century. METHODS: We collected and harmonised data on mortality by educational level among men and women aged 30-74 years in all countries with available data: Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, England and Wales, Belgium, France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Hungary, Lithuania and Estonia. RESULTS: Relative inequalities in premature mortality increased in most populations in the North, West and East of Europe, but not in the South. This was mostly due to smaller proportional reductions in mortality among the lower than the higher educated, but in the case of Lithuania and Estonia, mortality rose among the lower and declined among the higher educated. Mortality among the lower educated rose in many countries for conditions linked to smoking (lung cancer, women only) and excessive alcohol consumption (liver cirrhosis and external causes). In absolute terms, however, reductions in premature mortality were larger among the lower educated in many countries, mainly due to larger absolute reductions in mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer (men only). Despite rising levels of education, population-attributable fractions of lower education for mortality rose in many countries. CONCLUSIONS: Relative inequalities in premature mortality have continued to rise in most European countries, and since the 1990s, the contrast between the South (with smaller inequalities) and the East (with larger inequalities) has become stronger. While the population impact of these inequalities has further increased, there are also some encouraging signs of larger absolute reductions in mortality among the lower educated in many countries. Reducing inequalities in mortality critically depends upon speeding up mortality declines among the lower educated, and countering mortality increases from conditions linked to smoking and excessive alcohol consumption such as lung cancer, liver cirrhosis and external causes.

Occupational class inequalities in all-cause and cause-specific mortality among middle-aged men in 14 European populations during the early 2000s.

This study analyses occupational class inequalities in all-cause mortality and four specific causes of death among men, in Europe in the early 2000s, and is the most extensive comparative analysis of occupational class inequalities in mortality in Europe so far. Longitudinal data, obtained from population censuses and mortality registries in 14 European populations, from around the period 2000-2005, were used. Analyses concerned men aged 30-59 years and included all-cause mortality and mortality from all cancers, all cardiovascular diseases (CVD), all external, and all other causes. Occupational class was analysed according to five categories: upper and lower non-manual workers, skilled and unskilled manual workers, and farmers and self-employed combined. Inequalities were quantified with mortality rate ratios, rate differences, and population attributable fractions (PAF). Relative and absolute inequalities in all-cause mortality were more pronounced in Finland, Denmark, France, and Lithuania than in other populations, and the same countries (except France) also had the highest PAF values for all-cause mortality. The main contributing causes to these larger inequalities differed strongly between countries (e.g., cancer in France, all other causes in Denmark). Relative and absolute inequalities in CVD mortality were markedly lower in Southern European populations. We conclude that relative and absolute occupational class differences in all-cause and cause specific mortality have persisted into the early 2000's, although the magnitude differs strongly between populations. Comparisons with previous studies suggest that the relative gap in mortality between occupational classes has further widened in some Northern and Western European populations.

Changes in social inequalities in disability-free life expectancy in Southern Europe: the case of the Basque Country.

BACKGROUND: Health expectancy is a useful tool to monitor health inequalities. The evidence about the recent changes in social inequalities in healthy expectancy is relatively scarce and inconclusive, and most studies have focused on Anglo-Saxon and central or northern European countries. The objective of this study was to analyse the changes in socioeconomic inequalities in disability-free life expectancy in a Southern European population, the Basque Country, during the first decade of the 21st century. METHODS: This was an ecological cross-sectional study of temporal trends on the Basque population in 1999-2003 and 2004-2008. All-cause mortality rate, life expectancy, prevalence of disability and disability free-life expectancy were calculated for each period according to the deprivation level of the area of residence. The slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality were calculated to summarize and compare the inequalities in the two periods. RESULTS: Disability free-life expectancy decreased as area deprivation increased both in men and in women. The difference between the most extreme groups in 2004-2008 was 6.7 years in men and 3.7 in women. Between 1999-2003 and 2004-2008, socioeconomic inequalities in life expectancy decreased, and inequalities in disability-free expectancy increased in men and decreased in women. CONCLUSIONS: This study found important socioeconomic inequalities in health expectancy in the Basque Country. These inequalities increased in men and decreased in women in the first decade of the 21st century, during which the Basque Country saw considerable economic growth.

[Use of area-level socioeconomic indicators in epidemiological research: experience in Spain and advancement opportunities]. / Uso de indicadores socioeconómicos del área de residencia en la investigación epidemiológica: experiencia en España y oportunidades de avance.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the use of area-level socioeconomic indicators in epidemiological studies in Spain. METHODS: We included studies analyzing the association of area-level socioeconomic indicators and health indicators in Spain published in peer-reviewed journals. An electronic search was conducted in PubMed-Medline, SCI-Expanded, SSCI, Embase, and the Spanish Medical Index (until December 31, 2012). A manual search was also conducted of the references of the selected studies. Each of the articles initially selected on the basis of the title and abstract was reviewed by two investigators. Information was obtained on the publication and methodology (design and study areas, information sources, health and socioeconomic indicators, and statistical analysis). RESULTS: We included 142 studies published since 1988 (58.4% since 2005). More than half (59.9%) were in English. The level of analysis was ecological in 73.2% and multilevel in 19.0%. The areas most frequently analyzed were census tracts (35 studies), especially within cities or autonomous regions, followed by the provinces (30 studies), mostly concerning Spain overall. The dependent variable most frequently analyzed was mortality and the socioeconomic dimension most commonly used was employment (71.1%). CONCLUSIONS: In the last decade in Spain, there has been an increase in the number of studies examining the association of area-level socioeconomic and health indicators, as well as in the complexity of design and analysis.

Why does Spain have smaller inequalities in mortality? An exploration of potential explanations.

BACKGROUND: While educational inequalities in mortality are substantial in most European countries, they are relatively small in Spain. A better understanding of the causes of these smaller inequalities in Spain may help to develop policies to reduce inequalities in mortality elsewhere. The aim of the present study was therefore to identify the specific causes of death and determinants contributing to these smaller inequalities. METHODS: Data on mortality by education were obtained from longitudinal mortality studies in three Spanish populations (Barcelona, Madrid, the Basque Country), and six other Western European populations. Data on determinants by education were obtained from health interview surveys. RESULTS: The Spanish populations have considerably smaller absolute inequalities in mortality than other Western European populations. This is due mainly to smaller inequalities in mortality from cardiovascular disease (men) and cancer (women). Inequalities in mortality from most other causes are not smaller in Spain than elsewhere. Spain also has smaller inequalities in smoking and sedentary lifestyle and this is due to more smoking and physical inactivity in higher educated groups. CONCLUSION: Overall, the situation with regard to health inequalities does not appear to be more favourable in Spain than in other Western European populations. Smaller inequalities in mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer in Spain are likely to be related to its later socio-economic modernization. Although these smaller inequalities in mortality seem to be a historical coincidence rather than the outcome of deliberate policies, the Spanish example does suggest that large inequalities in total mortality are not inevitable.